Systems and methods for high-contrast, near-real-time acquisition of terahertz images

ABSTRACT

A terahertz image beam is upconverted by a nonlinear optical process (e.g., sum- or difference-frequency generation with a near IR upconverting beam). The upconverted image is acquired by a near IR image detector. The terahertz image beam and upconverting beam comprise trains of picosecond pulses. The bandwidths and center wavelengths of the terahertz image beam and the upconverting beam are such that wavelength filtering can be employed to permit an upconverted image beam to reach the detector while blocking or substantially attenuating the upconverting beam.

This application claims benefit of U.S. provisional App. Nos. 61/912,004 and 62/007,904 filed Dec. 4, 2013 and Jun. 4, 2014, respectively, in the names of Vladimir G. Kozlov and Patrick F. Tekavec, both of said provisional applications being hereby incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein.

This invention was made with government support under Contract No. NSF SBIR 7324191 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention.

BACKGROUND

The field of the present invention relates to imaging using terahertz-frequency radiation. In particular, systems and methods are disclosed for high-contrast, near-real-time acquisition of terahertz images.

A number of systems and methods for generation, detection, or imaging with terahertz-frequency radiation have been disclosed previously. Some of those are disclosed in:

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No. 7,272,158 entitled “Highly efficient waveguide         pulsed THz electromagnetic radiation source and group-matched         waveguide THz electromagnetic radiation source” issued Sep. 18,         2007 to Hayes et al;     -   U.S. Pat. No. 7,339,718 entitled “Generation of terahertz         radiation in orientation-patterned semiconductors” issued Mar.         4, 2008 to Vodopyanov et al (Microtech Instruments, Oregon State         University, Stanford University);     -   U.S. Pat. No. 7,349,609 entitled “Terahertz radiation generation         and methods therefor” issued Mar. 25, 2008 to Vodopyanov et al;     -   U.S. Pat. No. 7,929,580 entitled “Inexpensive Terahertz Pulse         Wave Generator” issued Apr. 19, 2011 to Moeller (Alcatel-Lucent         USA Inc.);     -   U.S. Pat. No. 8,035,083 entitled “Terahertz tunable sources,         spectrometers, and imaging systems” issued Oct. 11, 2011 to         Kozlov et al (Microtech Instruments Inc.);     -   U.S. Pub. No. 2012/0008140 entitled “Terahertz sensing system         and method” published Jan. 12, 2012 in the names of Khan et al         (Massachusetts Institute of Technology; now U.S. Pat. No.         8,514,393 issued Aug. 20, 2013);     -   U.S. Pat. No. 8,599,474 entitled “Alignment and optimization of         a synchronously pumped optical parametric oscillator for         nonlinear optical generation” issued Dec. 3, 2013 to Kozlov et         al (Microtech Instruments);     -   U.S. Pat. No. 8,599,475 entitled “Alignment and optimization of         a synchronously pumped optical parametric oscillator for         nonlinear optical generation” issued Dec. 3, 2013 to Kozlov et         al (Microtech Instruments);     -   U.S. Pat. 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SPIE 8261, Terahertz Technology and         Applications V, 82610V; doi:10.1117/12.909529 (2012);     -   Clerici et al; “CCD-based imaging and 3D space-time mapping of         terahertz fields via Kerr frequency conversion”; Optics Letters         Vol. 38 No. 11 p. 1899 (Jun. 1, 2013);     -   Fan et al; “Room temperature terahertz wave imaging at 60 fps by         frequency up-conversion in DAST crystal”; Proc. SPIE 8964,         Nonlinear Frequency Generation and Conversion: Materials,         Devices, and Applications XIII, 89640B (Feb. 20, 2014);         doi:10.1117/12.2038685;     -   Fan et al; “Real-time terahertz wave imaging by nonlinear         optical frequency up-conversion in a         4-dimethylamino-N′-methyl-4′-stilbazolium tosylate crystal”;         Applied Physics Letters, 104, 101106 (2014);         doi:10.1063/1.4868134; and     -   Tekavec et al; “Video Rate 3D THz tomography’: post-deadline         paper, Conference on Lasers and Electro-optics (Jun. 8-13, 2014,         San Jose, Calif.); incorporated by reference as if fully set         forth herein.

SUMMARY

A terahertz image beam is upconverted by a nonlinear optical process (e.g., sum- or difference-frequency generation with a near IR upconverting beam). The upconverted image is acquired by a near IR image detector. The terahertz image beam and upconverting beam comprise trains of picosecond pulses. The bandwidths and center wavelengths of the terahertz image beam and the upconverting beam are such that wavelength filtering can be employed to permit an upconverted image beam to reach the detector while blocking or substantially attenuating the upconverting beam.

Objects and advantages pertaining to upconversion of terahertz images and detection of the upconverted images may become apparent upon referring to the exemplary embodiments illustrated in the drawings and disclosed in the following written description.

This summary is provided to introduce a selection of concepts in a simplified form that are further described below in the Detailed Description. This Summary is not intended to identify key features or essential features of the disclosed subject matter, nor is it intended to be used as an aid in determining the scope of subsequently claimed subject matter.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 illustrates schematically a first example of an apparatus for acquiring an upconverted terahertz image.

FIG. 2 illustrates schematically a second example of an apparatus for acquiring an upconverted terahertz image.

FIGS. 3A-3D are examples of spectra of an upconverting optical beam and upconverted terahertz image beams before any polarization- or wavelength-based filtering; FIG. 3E is an example of polarization- and wavelength-filtered spectra of an upconverted terahertz image beam and a residual upconverting optical beam.

FIG. 4 is a table comparing estimated signal strength of several techniques for acquiring a terahertz image.

FIG. 5 illustrates schematically an example of a source for a terahertz imaging beam and an upconverting beam.

FIGS. 6A-6C are visible images of three test objects;

FIGS. 7A-7C are raw upconverted terahertz images of those objects in transmission;

FIGS. 8A-8C are normalized, upconverted terahertz images of those objects in transmission.

FIGS. 9A-9C are visible images of three other test objects;

FIGS. 10A-10C are raw upconverted terahertz images of those objects in transmission;

FIGS. 11A-11C are normalized, upconverted terahertz images of those objects in transmission.

FIG. 12 illustrates schematically a third example of an apparatus for acquiring an upconverted terahertz image.

FIGS. 13A and 13B are visible and reflected, upconverted terahertz images, respectively, of a test object.

FIG. 14A is a schematic exploded view of a test object for depth-dependent reflective terahertz imaging. FIG. 14B includes reflected and upconverted terahertz images of the test object of FIG. 14A at a series of different depths.

FIG. 15 illustrates schematically a fourth example of an apparatus for acquiring an upconverted terahertz image.

FIG. 16 illustrates schematically a simulated signal that could be produced using the apparatus of FIG. 15.

It should be noted that the embodiments depicted in this disclosure are shown only schematically, and that not all features may be shown in full detail or in proper proportion. Certain features or structures may be exaggerated relative to others for clarity. It should be noted further that the embodiments shown are only examples, and should not be construed as limiting the scope of the written description or subsequently presented claims.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS

The terahertz (THz) wave region of the electromagnetic spectrum (i.e., about 0.1 THz to about 10 THz), a relatively under-developed spectral “gap” between the microwave and long-wave infrared spectral regions, is interesting for several reasons. Many biological and chemical compounds have unique absorption features in this spectral region, making terahertz radiation attractive for imaging in defense, security, biomedical, and industrial settings. Terahertz radiation can pass with little or no attenuation through many substances that are opaque to optical, ultraviolet, or infrared radiation (e.g., ceramics, fabrics, dry organic materials, plastics, paper, or various packaging materials) with little attenuation. Imaging with terahertz radiation enables sub-millimeter spatial resolution, potentially providing higher quality images compared to images obtained at longer wavelengths (e.g., using millimeter waves).

Direct acquisition or detection of images at terahertz frequencies is hampered by the typically low sensitivity or low spatial resolution of suitable detectors (e.g., bolometer, Golay cell, or microbolometer array), by the need for raster scanning to obtain a two-dimensional image if a single-channel detector is used, or by the need for cryogenic cooling of a bolometric detector or array. Sensitive two-dimensional detector arrays with high spatial resolution operable at room temperature (e.g., CCD arrays, CMOS arrays, or InGaAs arrays) are readily available for detecting images in the visible and near infrared (near IR) portions of the electromagnetic spectrum (i.e., wavelengths from about 400 nm to about 3000 nm); the problems noted above for direct detection of terahertz-frequency images could be avoided by using such detectors, however, those detectors are not sensitive to terahertz radiation. Various nonlinear optical effects can be exploited to enable use of visible or near IR detectors or arrays for acquisition of terahertz images.

So-called coherent detection can be employed for acquiring terahertz images using a visible or near IR detector; examples are disclosed in the references of Wu et al, Yonera et al, Jiang et al, and Zhang et al (cited above). The coherent detection method typically employs a short optical pump pulse (e.g., <100 femtoseconds (fs) at a visible or near IR wavelength) to create a broadband THz pulse. Coherent detection of the THz pulse can be achieved by mixing it with a short optical probe pulse (e.g., <100 fs at a visible or near IR wavelength; typically an amplitude-scaled replica of the pump pulse) in an electro-optic crystal. The polarization of the optical probe pulse is rotated by the THz pulse electric field due to the Pockels effect; the amount of rotation is proportional to the THz field amplitude and can be measured by detection through an analyzer polarizer. Coherent detection can be implemented using a single detector element combined with raster scanning of the object or the THz image, or a visible or near IR detector array can be employed (e.g., a CCD camera or CMOS array), thereby eliminating the need for raster scanning. However, image contrast of the acquired images typically is limited by a low signal to noise ratio. In addition, the broad optical frequency bandwidth (typically about 2 to 3 THz) of the THz radiation generated by the short optical pulses often results in significant atmospheric absorption of certain frequencies within that bandwidth, resulting in loss of THz power and distortion of the THz frequency spectrum.

Disclosed herein is an alternative to coherent detection, in which a visible or near IR detector or array can be employed for acquiring THz images by (i) nonlinear optical upconversion of those images to optical or near infrared wavelengths (i.e., about 400 nm to about 3000 nm) and (ii) detection of the upconverted images using the detector or array. Examples are illustrated schematically in FIGS. 1 and 2 of systems for generating and acquiring upconverted terahertz images. In each example, an object 10 is illuminated by a beam of terahertz radiation (i.e., terahertz imaging beam 21) at a wavelength of λ_(THz)=c/ν_(THz) (c is the speed of light). A terahertz image can be generated by reflection or scattering from the object 10 or by transmission through or around the object 10. The reflected or transmitted terahertz image beam 20 is collected by a first focusing element 31 (shown as a single lens in FIGS. 1 and 2; an off-axis parabolic reflector or other one or more transmissive or reflective focusing elements suitable for terahertz radiation can be employed) and relayed to an upconverting nonlinear optical medium 36. An upconverting beam 22 at a visible or near IR wavelength λ_(UC) is combined (usually substantially collinearly) with the terahertz image beam 20 by a beam combiner 34; the beam combiner can be of any suitable type or construction (e.g., a pellicle), and can either reflect the upconverting beam 22 while transmitting the terahertz image beam 20 (as shown in FIGS. 1 and 2), or can transmit the upconverting beam 22 while reflecting the terahertz image beam 20 (not shown).

The terahertz image beam 20 and upconverting beam 22 co-propagate through the upconverting nonlinear optical medium 36, in which one or more upconverted image beams 24 are produced by nonlinear optical interactions (sum- or difference-frequency generation; SFG or DFG, respectively) between the terahertz image beam 20 and the upconverting beam 22. Residual radiation from the upconverting beam 22 is attenuated or blocked by one or more wavelength dependent filters 38 or one or more polarizers 39 (which collectively constitute an image filtering element). The one or more upconverted image beams 24 (at 1/λ_(DFG)=1/λ_(UC)−1/λ_(THz) or 1/λ_(SFG)=1/λ_(UC)+1/λ_(THz)) are collected by a second focusing element 32 (shown as a single lens in FIGS. 1 and 2; any one or more transmissive or reflective focusing elements suitable for the wavelength(s) of the upconverted image beam(s) can be employed) and relayed to a visible or near IR detector array 40 for detection of the upconverted image. Whether any residual radiation from the terahertz image beam 20 reaches the detector array 40 is largely irrelevant, because the terahertz radiation typically would have no discernible effect on the visible or near IR detector array 40. However, the detector array 40 is sensitive to residual radiation from the upconverting beam 22; any such residual upconverting radiation reaching the detector array 40 represents an undesirable background signal for detection of the one or more upconverted image beams 24 (further discussed below).

A detector array 40 is shown and described in the examples, enabling acquisition of entire images by receiving simultaneously different spatial portions of the upconverted image beam on multiple corresponding detector elements of the detector array. However, the present disclosure or appended claims also can encompass use of a single detector element scanned across the upconverted image beam so as to receive sequentially different spatial portions of the upconverted image beam on the single detector element.

The effective focal length (e.g., the focal length of a single lens or single curved mirror, or the effective focal length of a multicomponent focusing element) of the first focusing element 31 is f₁; the effective focal length of the second focusing element 32 is f₂. In the configuration of FIG. 1, the distance between the object 10 and the first focusing element 31 is d_(o1), the distance between the first focusing element 31 and the nonlinear optical medium 36 is d_(i1), and the object 10, the first focusing element 31, and the nonlinear optical medium 36 are positioned so that 1/d_(o1)+1/d_(i1)=1/f₁, i.e., the object 10 and the nonlinear optical medium 36 are positioned at conjugate planes defined by the focusing element 31 so that a terahertz image of the object 10 is formed at the nonlinear optical medium 36 with a magnification of −d_(i1)/d_(o1). That terahertz image is upconverted by SFG or DFG with the upconverting beam 22 in the nonlinear optical medium 36. The distance between the nonlinear optical medium 36 and the second focusing element 32 is d_(o2), the distance between the second focusing element 32 and the detector array 40 is d_(i2), and the nonlinear optical medium 36, the second focusing element 32, and the detector array 40 are positioned so that 1/d_(o2)+1/d_(i2)=1/f₂, i.e., the nonlinear optical medium 36 and the detector array 40 are positioned at conjugate planes defined by the focusing element 32 so that the upconverted image generated in the nonlinear optical medium 36 is reimaged at the detector array 40 with a magnification of −d_(i2)/d_(o2). The overall magnification of the image formed on the detector array 40 relative to the object 10 is (d_(i1)·d_(i2))/(d_(o1)·d_(o2)).

In the configuration of FIG. 2, the distance between the object 10 and the first focusing element 31 is f₁, and the distance between the first focusing element 31 and the nonlinear optical medium 36 is also f₁. As a result, a spatial Fourier transform of the terahertz image is formed at the nonlinear optical medium 36; it is that spatial Fourier transform that is upconverted by SFG or DFG with the upconverting beam 22 in the nonlinear optical medium 36 to generate upconverted spatial Fourier transform(s) of the terahertz image. The distance between the nonlinear optical medium 36 and the second focusing element 32 is f₂, and the distance between the second focusing element 32 and the detector array 40 is also f₂. As a result, an upconverted image is formed at the detector array 40 from the upconverted spatial Fourier transform generated in the nonlinear optical medium 36. The overall magnification of the image formed on the detector array 40 relative to the object 10 is −(λ_(UC)·f₂)/(λ_(THz)·f₁). The configuration of FIG. 2 can in some instances lead to a more compact arrangement of the image upconversion system, because often d_(i1)+d_(i2)+d_(o1)+d_(o2) is larger than 2·(f₂+f₁).

In any real system the locations of the object 10, the focusing elements 31 and 32, the nonlinear optical medium 36, or the detector array 40 might deviate from the exact positions given for the two configurations described above. For the purposes of the present disclosure or appended claims, a given imaging arrangement shall be considered to conform to one of those configurations if an upconverted image is formed at the detector array 40 of sufficiently good quality for a given application.

In either of the two configurations described above, an upconverting focusing element 33 conveys the upconverting beam 22 into the nonlinear optical medium 36 to interact with the terahertz image beam 20. The upconverting beam 22 preferably is made as small as practicable at the nonlinear optical medium 36 (for increased intensity of the upconverting beam resulting in increased upconversion efficiency) while still substantially overlapping spatially the entire terahertz image beam 20 and exhibiting a substantially flat wavefront and sufficiently small spatial intensity variation across the spatial extent of the terahertz image or Fourier transform. To those ends, typically the focusing element 33 (e.g., a single lens, a single curved mirror, a telescope, or a suitable combination of one or more transmissive or reflective focusing components) is arranged to form a relatively gently focused beam waist of the upconverting beam 22 at the nonlinear optical medium 36. For example, a focusing element 33 can be arranged to produce a beam waist about 7 mm wide (full width at half maximum, i.e., FWHM) at the nonlinear optical medium 36; other suitable widths can be employed. The effect of an upconverting beam size that is too small depends on the configuration of the imaging system. In the configuration of FIG. 1, a small upconverting beam 22 can result in loss of peripheral portions of the upconverted image if peripheral portions of the terahertz image are not upconverted. In the configuration of FIG. 2, a small upconverting beam 22 can result in loss of sharpness of the upconverted image if larger wavevector components (i.e., peripheral portions of the spatial Fourier transform) of the terahertz image are not upconverted. In either configuration, deviations from a flat wavefront or uniform intensity of the upconverting beam 22 typically can be tolerated; the magnitude of such deviations that can be tolerated can vary and typically is dependent on the image quality needed or desired for the upconverted image. In addition to the spatial overlap of the terahertz image beam 20 and the upconverting beam 22 discussed above, substantial temporal overlap of the respective pulse trains of those beams is also necessary for achieving a desired efficiency of upconversion of the terahertz image. A suitable delay line can be inserted into the beam paths of one or both of the terahertz image beam 20 or the upconverting beam 22 (e.g., delay line 42 in FIG. 12); the delay line can be adjustable to enable optimization of the upconversion efficiency.

Examples are shown in FIGS. 3A-3D of wavelength spectra of the upconverting beam 22 and two upconverted image beams 24. In each example the upconverted image beams 24 are formed in the nonlinear optical medium 36 by sum- and difference-frequency generation (SFG and DFG, respectively) between the THz image beam 20 (centered at ν_(THz)≈1.55 THz) and the upconverting beam 22 (centered at λ_(UC)≈800 nm in FIG. 3A; centered at λ_(UC)≈1064 nm in FIGS. 3B-3D). Depending on the nature of the SFG and DFG nonlinear optical processes, in some instances only one of those processes will produce a corresponding upconverted image beam 24.

In the example of FIG. 3A, the upconverting beam 22 comprises a train of pulses about 100 fs in duration with a corresponding spectral bandwidth of about 15 nm centered at λ_(UC)≈800 nm. The upconverted image beams 24 have corresponding center wavelengths of λ_(SFG)≈796 nm and λ_(DFG)≈804 nm with similar spectral bandwidths. In this example the upconverted image beams 24 are polarized orthogonally relative to the upconverting beam 22 due to the nature of the nonlinear optical process (e.g., Type I or Type II nonlinear optical processes) employed for SFG and DFG in the nonlinear optical medium 36. Shorter pulse duration (ca. 100 fs) enhances the efficiency of the SFG and DFG processes, but the concomitant larger bandwidth (ca. 15 nm) causes substantial spectral overlap of the upconverting beam 22 and the upconverted image beams 24. Because of that overlap, a wavelength dependent filter 38 typically cannot be employed as part of the image filtering element for attenuating the residual upconverting beam 22. Orthogonal polarization of the upconverting beam 22 and the upconverted image beams 24 enables use of a polarizer 39 as the image filtering element for attenuating the residual upconverting beam 22. However, a polarizer will at best exhibit attenuation of about 10⁻⁶ for the blocked polarization state (10⁻⁴ to 10⁻⁵ is more realistic) and the residual upconverting beam 22 typically is not in a pure linear polarization state due to passage through the nonlinear optical medium 36 and various other optical components. The portion of the residual upconverting beam 22 that leaks through the polarizer 39 often can be substantially more intense than the upconverted image beams 24. In addition, the broad optical frequency bandwidth of the THz image beam 20 suffers from significant atmospheric absorption of certain frequency components, as noted above. For all these reasons, pulses of such short duration (a few hundred femtoseconds or shorter with correspondingly large spectral bandwidth) are not particularly well suited for upconversion of terahertz images.

In various other previous examples (e.g., those disclosed in the references of Khan et al, Nahata et al, Cao et al, and Ding et al, cited above; representative spectra shown in FIG. 3B with λ_(UC)≈1064 nm, λ_(SFG)≈1058 nm, and λ_(DFG)≈1070 nm), a terahertz beam and an upconverting beam comprise pulses that are several nanoseconds (ns) in duration with correspondingly narrow spectral bandwidth (e.g., <0.1 nm), enabling a wavelength dependent filter to be employed in the image filtering element for attenuating residual upconverting radiation before detection of the upconverted signal. However, the longer pulses require pulse energy of the upconverting beam to be close to the damage threshold of the nonlinear optical medium 36 to achieve detectable upconversion of the terahertz image. Such pulse energies typically are only available in low repetition rate pulsed lasers (e.g., pulse repetition rates on the order of 10 Hz), however, pulse-to-pulse fluctuations tend to obscure detection of the small signal level of the upconverted image. Most detector arrays are sensitive to average power, which is quite low at such low repetition rates. The repetition rate is also comparable to desired frame rates for near-real-time video imaging and is therefore not well-suited to that application; video-rate imaging would require a single shot per frame. In addition, the upconverting beam typically must include radiation at the desired DFG wavelength to enable detection of the upconverted image, making that detection an inherently nonzero-background process (e.g., as in the reference of Cao et al). For all of these reasons, pulses of such long duration (several nanoseconds or longer with correspondingly narrow spectral bandwidth) and such large pulse energy are not particularly well suited for upconversion of terahertz images.

In an inventive example according to the present disclosure (FIG. 3C), the terahertz image beam 20 and the upconverting beam 22 comprise trains of pulses about 6-10 picoseconds (ps; FWHM) in duration, the upconverting beam is about 0.3 nm in bandwidth (FWHM), and the terahertz image beam is similarly narrow in its frequency spectrum (e.g., less than 100 GHz (FWHM) centered at about 1.55 THz, thus enabling substantial avoidance of atmospheric absorption bands); generation of those pulse trains is further described below. With the upconverting beam 22 centered at λ_(UC)≈1064 nm, the upconverted image beams 24 have corresponding center wavelengths of λ_(SFG)≈1058 nm and λ_(DFG)≈1070 nm and similarly narrow spectral bandwidths. As in the previous example, the upconverted image beams 24 are polarized orthogonally relative to the upconverting beam 22 due to the nature of the nonlinear optical process (e.g., Type I or Type II nonlinear optical processes) employed for SFG and DFG in the nonlinear optical medium 36. Orthogonal polarization of the upconverting beam 22 and the upconverted image beams 24 enables use of a polarizer 39 in the image filtering element for attenuating the residual upconverting beam 22. Longer pulses relative to the example of FIG. 3A results in reduced peak intensities and reduced efficiency of the SFG and DFG processes, although those processes are still more efficient than in the example of FIG. 3B. However, the correspondingly smaller spectral bandwidth substantially eliminates spectral overlap of the upconverting beam 22 and the upconverted image beams 24, enabling use of one or more wavelength dependent filters 38 in the image filtering element, instead of or in addition to polarizer 39, for attenuating the residual upconverting beam 22. A combination of one or more wavelength dependent filters 38 and the polarizer 39 can conservatively yield attenuation of the residual upconverting beam 22 on the order of 10⁻¹⁰ and perhaps as much as 10⁻¹², yielding substantially higher signal-to-background relative to the previously employed methods described above and in the cited references (see spectrum of FIG. 3E and table of FIG. 4). Alternatively, the lack of spectral overlap of the upconverting beam 22 with the upconverted image beams 24 can enable elimination of the polarizer 39 from the image filtering element and use of alternative, potentially more efficient, nonlinear optical processes in the nonlinear optical medium 36, e.g., a Type 0 nonlinear optical process wherein all polarizations are parallel to one another. The pulse duration also enables terahertz image acquisition to be combined with terahertz tomographic techniques to acquire images originating from differing depths within a sample with spatial resolution on the order of several millimeters.

Another inventive example according to the present disclosure (FIG. 3D) is similar to that of FIG. 3C, except that the pulses employed are about 1-2 ps in duration (FWHM) with a bandwidth of about 1 nm (FWHM). Those parameters can increase the efficiency of the terahertz image upconversion (higher intensity due to shorter pulse duration) while still enabling effective wavelength-based filtering of the residual upconverting beam. The shorter pulse duration also enables improved spatial resolution (e.g., on the order of a millimeter) when terahertz image acquisition is combined with terahertz tomographic techniques to acquire images originating from differing depths within a sample.

In another inventive example, the terahertz image beam can be centered at about 0.85 THz with spectral width similar to one of the preceding examples (enabling substantial avoidance of atmospheric absorption bands). If the upconverting beam is centered at about λ_(UC)≈1064 nm with similar spectral width, the upconverted image beams will have corresponding center wavelengths of λ_(SFG)≈1061 nm and λ_(DFG)≈1067 nm and similar spectral widths. The smaller spectral separation between the upconverting beam and the upconverted image beams may require enhanced spectral filtering for adequate attenuation of the upconverting beam.

Any suitable nonlinear optical medium 36 can be employed for generating the upconverted image beam(s) 24. One suitable medium comprises a stack of two or more optically contacted gallium arsenide (GaAs) or gallium phosphide (GaP) plates. The thickness of the plates is selected to result in quasi-phase-matched upconversion by the upconverting beam 22 of the terahertz image beam 20 to the one or more upconverted image beams 24. In one example, a stack of 6 to 12 GaAs plates, each about 300 μm thick, can be employed to produce the upconverted image beams 24 at 1058 nm and 1070 nm from the terahertz image beam 20 at about 1.55 THz and the upconverting beam 22 at about 1064 nm using Type I or II nonlinear optical processes (i.e., polarization of upconverting beam 22 substantially orthogonal to that of upconverted beam(s) 24). More plates can result in higher upconversion efficiency, but the difficulty of maintaining sufficiently high optical quality increases with increasing numbers of plates. Other plate thicknesses can be employed for other combinations of terahertz frequency and upconverting wavelength. Any other suitable nonlinear optical material(s) can be employed, any other suitable phase-matching or quasi-phase-matching schemes can be employed, and any suitable nonlinear optical process, e.g., Type 0, I, II, and so forth, can be employed.

If the nonlinear optical process in the medium 36 produces only one upconverted image beam 24, or if only one of multiple upconverted image beams 24 is desired to be detected at the detector array 40, then a short-pass or long-pass cutoff filter 38 can be employed that attenuates or blocks the upconverting beam 22 while enabling at least a portion (spectrally) of one upconverted image beam to reach the detector 40. For example, for the example spectra shown in FIGS. 3C and 3D, a long-pass filter 38 with a cutoff wavelength between 1064 nm and 1070 nm can be employed that would attenuate or block the residual upconverting beam 22 at 1064 nm and the upconverted image beam 24 at 1058 nm (if present), but would transmit to the detector array 40 at least a portion of the upconverted image beam 24 at 1070 nm; an example of a spectrum transmitted by such an arrangement is shown in FIG. 3E. Similarly, a short-pass filter 38 with a cutoff wavelength between 1058 nm and 1064 nm could be used to enable the upconverted image beam at 1058 nm to reach the detector array 40 while attenuating or blocking the residual upconverting beam 22 at 1064 nm and the upconverted image beam 24 at 1070 nm (if present).

In another example, a so-called notch filter 38 (e.g., a Bragg filter) nominally centered at 1064 nm could be employed to attenuate or block the residual upconverting beam 22 while enabling at least portions (spectrally) of both upconverted beams 24 to reach the detector 40. In practice, a notch filter suitable for the particular combination of wavelengths shown in FIG. 3C or 3D may not provide sufficient discrimination between the upconverting beam 22 and upconverted image beam 24, i.e., currently it is difficult to design and manufacture such a notch filter that exhibits both sufficient attenuation of the residual upconverting beam 22 and sufficient transmission of the upconverted image beams 24 at those wavelengths. Also, depending on the nature of the source of the upconverting beam 22, its spectrum can in some instances exhibit excess bandwidth or unwanted sidebands; that issue can in some instances be mitigated by use of a bandpass filter centered at λ_(UC) to “clean up” the spectrum of the upconverting beam 22. In any case, currently available notch filters can be suitably employed for other, more widely separated combinations of wavelengths, or a future notch filter of improved design and performance could be employed with the combination of wavelengths of FIG. 3C or 3D.

Note that even if only one upconverted image beam 24 is to be acquired at the detector array 40, producing the DFG upconverted image beam 24 can be advantageous. Each SFG photon is produced at the expense of a corresponding terahertz photon lost from the terahertz image beam 20; the intensity of the SFG upconverted image beam 24 is therefore limited by the number of photons available in the terahertz image beam 20. In contrast, each DFG photon produced in the upconverted image beam 24 also results in a new photon produced in the terahertz image beam 20. The intensity of the DFG upconverted image beam 24 is therefore limited by the (much larger) number of photons available in the upconverting beam 22. Consequently, if only one upconverted image is to be acquired, it may be desirable to employ DFG to generate that upconverted image. However, generation of the DFG upconverted image beam 24 makes available additional photons in the terahertz image beam 20 for SFG. Even if the DFG upconverted image beam 24 is attenuated or blocked by the filter 38 and only the SFG upconverted image beam 24 reaches the detector array 40, generation of the DFG upconverted image beam 24 can increase the detected intensity of the SFG upconverted image beam 24.

Note that simultaneous SFG and DFG described in the previous paragraph only arises under certain conditions. In the examples described herein, the acceptance bandwidth of the quasi-phase-matched SFG and DFG processes is sufficiently large that both processes can occur with near optimal efficiency for the combination of λ_(UC)≈1064 nm, λ_(SFG)≈1058 nm, and λ_(DFG)≈1070 nm shown in the examples of FIGS. 3C and 3D. For more widely separated SFG and DFG wavelengths (i.e., for higher terahertz frequencies), or for a nonlinear optical medium with a smaller acceptance bandwidth, it may not be possible to produce both SFG and DFG upconverted image beams 24.

Any suitable source(s) can be employed for (i) producing the picosecond-duration pulsed terahertz radiation used to generate the terahertz imaging beam 21 and (ii) producing the picosecond-duration pulsed upconverting beam 22. If separate sources are employed, they must be sufficiently well synchronized so as to enable temporal overlap of those picosecond-duration pulses in the nonlinear optical medium 36 to produce the upconverted image beam(s) 24. A preferred approach includes use of a common source for both the terahertz and upconverting radiation; in that instance the terahertz and upconverting pulses are inherently synchronized. Examples are described below.

FIG. 5 illustrates schematically an example of a common source of terahertz and upconverting beams 20 and 22; the source comprises a synchronously pumped optical parametric oscillator 100 (OPO 100) pumped by a continuous wave (cw) modelocked fiber laser 200 (pump laser 200) and including an intracavity nonlinear optical medium 150 for generating terahertz radiation. Examples of such a system are available commercially (e.g., Model No. TPO-1500-HP available from Microtech Instruments Inc.) or disclosed in several of the references cited above (e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,349,609, 8,599,474, 8,599,475, and 8,599,476, each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety). The TPO-1500-HP is described below, but systems and methods disclosed herein are not limited to use of that terahertz source.

The cw modelocked fiber laser 200 (i.e., pump laser 200) produces about 10 W of average power at a wavelength of 1064 nm; its output comprises a train of pulses about 6 ps in duration at a repetition rate of about 110 MHz. A fraction of the pump output power (e.g., about 100 mW; adjustable if desired, e.g., by employing a waveplate 202 and polarizing beamsplitter 204 as in FIG. 12) can be split off and used as the upconverting beam 22. The bulk of the pump output power is used to synchronously pump the OPO 100, which is arranged as a ring cavity with cavity mirrors M1 through M6 that are highly reflective in a range around 2100 nm; the OPO resonator can include additional optical elements as needed or desired (e.g., an intracavity etalon 120 with a free spectral range of 1.55 THz). Any suitable nonlinear optical material arranged in any suitable way can function as the parametric gain medium 110 for the OPO 100. In the TPO-1500-HP the parametric gain medium 110 is a periodically-poled lithium niobate arranged for Type 0 quasi-phase-matched (QPM) parametric down conversion of the pump radiation at 1064 nm to signal and idler radiation at about 2116 nm and about 2140 nm, respectively.

The intracavity nonlinear optical medium 150 comprises a stack of two or more optically contacted gallium arsenide plates that are arranged for Type II QPM difference frequency generation between the signal and idler radiation, yielding terahertz radiation at about 1.55 THz with a bandwidth of about 100 GHz. Typically 6 to 12 or more optically contacted GaAs plates are employed; more plates yield higher terahertz generation efficiency, but the stacks are harder to manufacture while maintaining sufficient optical quality. Each GaAs plate is about 550 μm thick and has its crystal axes rotated 180° about the propagation axis relative to the adjacent plates in the stack to achieve quasi-phase-matching at the desired terahertz frequency and signal and idler wavelengths (1.55 THz, 2116 nm, and 2140 nm, respectively, in this example). The stack is oriented at normal incidence and is anti-reflection coated on its first and second surfaces to reduce insertion loss in the OPO resonator cavity. The terahertz radiation is coupled out of the OPO cavity with an off-axis parabolic mirror 130 that has a hole to permit passage of the resonating signal and idler beams 108. The terahertz output comprises a train of pulses about 6-10 ps in duration at a repetition rate of 110 MHz and with about 300 μW of average power and about 400 mW of peak power. The terahertz output beam is employed as terahertz imaging beam 21 and becomes, after transmission through or around the object 10 or after reflection or scattering from object 10, the terahertz image beam 20. In the examples that follow, it was observed that the upconverted image signal varies substantially linearly with terahertz imaging beam power and with upconverting beam power, without evidence of saturation. This suggests that further increases in upconverted image signal can be achieved by further increasing terahertz and upconverting beam powers. The average terahertz and upconverting beam powers and the high pulse repetition rate enable near-real-time terahertz imaging, e.g., video-rate terahertz imaging at frame rates of about 5-30 FPS or more.

The terahertz source described above can provide excess radiation most plentifully at 1064 nm; that, and ready availability of sensitive detector arrays in that wavelength region, make 1064 nm a natural choice for the wavelength λ_(UC) of the upconverting beam 22 in many examples. However, in other examples, signal or idler radiation (or both) near 2100 nm produced by the OPO 100 can be employed as the upconverting beam 22. Those beams can be readily provided by making one of the resonator mirrors of OPO 100 slightly transmissive for the signal and idler wavelengths. Gallium arsenide exhibits non-negligible two-photon absorption at 1064 nm, which can in some instances limit the peak intensity of the upconverting beam 22 incident on the nonlinear optical medium 36; there is no significant two-photon absorption of 2100 nm radiation. The nonlinear optical medium 36 could be made using GaAs plates substantially identical to those of the nonlinear optical medium 150. Either signal or idler can be employed alone as the upconverting beam 22 using SFG, DFG, or both, as already described above. If the signal wavelength at about 2116 nm is employed, then SFG results in an upconverted image at about 2094 nm and DFG results in an upconverted image at about 2140 nm; if the idler wavelength at about 2140 nm is employed, then SFG results in an image at about 2116 nm and DFG results in an upconverted image at about 2164 nm. Many of the same issues (e.g., filtering based on wavelength or polarization) apply that were discussed above for SFG and DFG image upconversion using a 1064 nm upconverting beam 22. Using both signal and idler wavelengths simultaneously for the upconverting beam 22 can offer the further advantage that the presence of both wavelengths can act to amplify the terahertz image beam 24, i.e., the presence in the upconverting beam 22 of the idler wavelength at about 2140 nm greatly enhances the DFG process by which each signal photon at about 2116 nm that is lost from the upconverting beam 22 results in a new terahertz photon in the terahertz image beam 20. Upconverted image beams 24 are produced both at about 2094 nm and about 2164 nm. As described above, filtering issues based on wavelength or polarization would apply in this scenario as well.

FIGS. 6A-6C show a cross-shaped aperture in a piece of sheet metal, a nut, and a razor blade, respectively, that were imaged (as object 10; in transmission) using upconversion of a terahertz image. FIGS. 7A-7C are the corresponding raw transmitted and upconverted images on the left and the upconverted terahertz imaging beam 21 (without the object 10) on the right, and FIGS. 8A-8C are the corresponding normalized, upconverted images (normalized by dividing the raw upconverted image beam by the upconverted terahertz imaging beam). The operating parameters for collection of these images are as follows (examples only; other suitable combinations of operating parameters can be employed as needed or desired):

-   -   upconverting beam 22: average power about 600 mW at 1064 nm;         spectral width about 0.15 nm; pulse duration about 10 ps;         repetition rate about 80 MHz; beam size in the nonlinear optical         medium 36 about 7 mm diameter,     -   terahertz imaging beam 21: average power about 700 μW at 1.55         THz; spectral width about 80 GHz; pulse duration about 8 ps;         repetition rate about 80 MHz; beam size at object 10 about 20 mm         diameter,     -   arranged as in FIG. 2: f₁=75 mm; f₂=250 mm,     -   terahertz image beam 20: beam size in the nonlinear optical         medium 36 about 1 mm diameter,     -   nonlinear optical medium 36: stack of six GaAs plates each about         300 μm thick,     -   polarizer 39: Glan laser polarizer; extinction at least 10⁻⁴; in         some instances as good as perhaps 10⁻⁵,     -   filter 38: long-pass filter; OD about 6 at 1064 nm; OD less than         0.1 at 1070 nm,     -   detector array 40: CMOS detector array (Thorlabs® P/N DCC3240N);         1280×1024 pixels; sensor area 8.69 mm×5.43 mm; pixel size 5.3         μm, square.

FIGS. 9A-9C show a razor blade covered by adhesive tape, a leaf, and a piece of paper with water, respectively, that were imaged (as object 10; in transmission) using upconversion of a terahertz image. FIGS. 10A-10C are the corresponding raw transmitted and upconverted images and FIGS. 11A-11C are the corresponding normalized transmitted and upconverted images (normalized by dividing the raw upconverted image beam by the upconverted terahertz imaging beam). The operating parameters for collection of these images are similar to those given above; other suitable combinations of operating parameters can be employed as needed or desired. The examples of FIGS. 6A-8C demonstrate upconversion of transmitted terahertz images of objects that are opaque to terahertz radiation (i.e., upconversion of the terahertz “shadows” of such objects). The examples of FIGS. 9A-11C demonstrate upconversion of transmitted terahertz images of objects having spatially varying terahertz transmission (e.g., the veins in the leaf or the wet region of the paper) or that have features not discernable under optical illumination (e.g., the razor blade concealed by the tape).

An example is illustrated schematically in FIG. 12 of a system for generating and acquiring reflected and upconverted terahertz images. In this example the delay line 42 (in the path of the upconverting beam 22 in this example) can be employed to select a depth within the object 10 from which a reflected terahertz image beam 20 is upconverted for detection. Longer delay of the upconverting beam 22 corresponds to a terahertz image beam 22 reflected from a correspondingly greater depth within the object 10 having pulses that overlap temporally with the pulses of the upconverting beam 22. Alternatively, the relative delay between the pulse trains of the terahertz image beam 20 and the upconverting beam 22 can be varied by moving the object 10. FIG. 13A is an optical image of a razor blade test object. FIG. 13B is a reflected and upconverted terahertz image of the razor blade. The operating parameters for collection of these images are similar to those given above, except that the terahertz imaging beam 21 is incident at 45° and the terahertz image beam 20 is reflected at 45°; other suitable combinations of operating parameters can be employed as needed or desired.

The reflective arrangement of FIG. 12 can be employed to provide three-dimensional (3D) terahertz imaging (i.e., tomography) of an object that partially transmits terahertz radiation. A test object is illustrated schematically in the exploded view of FIG. 14A and comprises an aluminum mirror 50, two spacer rings 52, two Teflon® wafers 54, and an aluminum mask 56 (in this example with a cross-shaped aperture). The Teflon® wafers 54 block visible and near infrared light; the spacers determine the depth difference between the reflective surfaces of the mirror 50 and the mask 56. FIG. 14B is a series of reflected and upconverted terahertz images acquired at different positions of the delay line 42. Selecting a specific relative temporal delay between pulses of the terahertz image beam 20 and the pulses of the upconverting beam 22 enables selective upconversion of a terahertz image reflected from a corresponding specific depth within the object. No terahertz image is upconverted if the upconverting pulses are too early (0 mm frame of FIG. 14B); reflected terahertz images of the mask 56 are upconverted when the upconverting pulses overlap temporally the terahertz pulses reflected from the mask 56 (2, 3, 4, and 5 mm frames); little discernible signal is upconverted at a time delay corresponding to the space between the mask 56 and the mirror 50 (7 mm frame); a reflected negative image of the mask 56 is upconverted when the upconverting pulses overlap temporally the terahertz pulses reflected from the mirror 50 and partly occluded by the mask 56 (8 and 9 mm frames of FIG. 14B).

Terahertz tomography using the depth-dependent upconversion of terahertz images can be usefully employed in a variety of settings. In one example, such a system can be employed for security scanning. In another example, excised breast tissue removed during a lumpectomy or other breast-conserving surgery can be examined to determine rapidly the thickness or margin of non-cancerous tissue surrounding cancerous tissue, based on differing absorption coefficient and refractive index in the terahertz region for cancerous versus non-cancerous tissue. Currently, margins are determined by histologic examination of excised breast tissue that typically requires at least one day to complete. A margin of 1 to 2 mm is considered desirable, and a margin less than that often requires additional surgery. A system for depth-dependent terahertz imaging could be implemented within or near the operating room to enable nearly immediate evaluation of the tissue margins (e.g., within a few minutes or less), so that additional tissue can be removed (if needed due to inadequate margins) within the same surgical procedure. The potential reduction in additional surgical procedures, and concomitant costs and risks of complications, can be significant.

Myriad other applications of 2D or 3D terahertz imaging disclosed herein can be implemented. The wide range of potential applications of terahertz imaging includes, e.g., inspection of multilayer structures used for so-called wearable electronics, in which various sensor, electronic, and display elements are arranged among multiple layers of flexible polymer materials. For example, near-real-time terahertz imaging of such objects can be employed in an industrial setting for identifying structural defects in objects on a manufacturing line.

Another example is illustrated schematically in FIG. 15 of a system for generating and acquiring reflected and upconverted terahertz images using so-called homodyne detection. In the preceding examples, the position dependent intensity of the upconverted terahertz image depends on only the intensity of the terahertz image, i.e., the position-dependent intensity of the upconverted image is substantially independent of position-dependent phase of that image. In this example a beam splitter 44 is employed to split off a terahertz reference beam 23 from the imaging terahertz beam 20. The beam splitter 44 combines the terahertz reference beam 23 with the terahertz image beam 21, which then co-propagate through the nonlinear optical medium 36. The relative phase of the terahertz reference beam 23 and the terahertz image beam 21 can be varied by varying the length of a delay line, e.g., as shown in FIG. 15. In this arrangement, the position-dependent intensity of each upconverted image depends at least partly on the corresponding relative phase of the terahertz image beam and the terahertz reference beam. Acquiring terahertz images that include both intensity and phase at each image position potentially can yield more information regarding the object 10 than image intensity alone. For example, a given object might yield a featureless image if only intensity is detected, but might exhibit image features manifested as phase variation across the image. Such an example is analogous to an object that is uniformly transparent to visible light but exhibits a spatially dependent index of refraction; an image consisting of only transmitted intensity would miss that spatial variation.

In the homodyne detection arrangement of FIG. 15, the combined terahertz reference beam 23 and terahertz image beam 21 arrive at the nonlinear optical medium 36 as a coherent superposition. The total terahertz intensity of the combined beams will include phase-independent portions that correspond to the squared amplitudes of the respective reference and image beams, and will also include a phase-dependent portion that corresponds to cross terms involving both amplitudes. A simulation of such signals is shown in the plot of FIG. 16, in which the total intensity (of a single detector signal) is plotted as a function of relative time delay between the reference and image beams (equivalent to relative phase). The total intensity arises from upconversion of an image beam combined with a reference beam 100 times more intense than the image beam (signals are normalized to the reference beam intensity). Interference of those beams results in phase-dependent intensity variation of about ±20% of the reference intensity. This can be viewed as effectively amplifying the image beam, e.g., in some instance, depending on factors such as noise or detection sensitivity, a ±20% modulation of a non-zero background might be more readily detected and quantified than a nominally zero-background signal that is 100 times smaller.

Homodyne detection can be employed using a single detector: the detector is scanned across the upconverted image beam 24, and at each detector location the delay line is scanned to vary the relative phase of the terahertz reference and image beams. Alternatively, an array detector can be employed, acquiring a complete image at each different relative phase. In either case, the resulting images can be presented or interpreted according to standard methods for treating phase dependent quantities (e.g., using corresponding amplitude and phase images, or using so-called “in-phase” and “quadrature” images, which might also be referred to as real and imaginary parts of a complex-valued image). Homodyne detection techniques are widely employed in the field of optical coherence tomography; various numerical, computational, or analysis methods developed in that field can be readily applied to homodyne detection of upconverted terahertz images.

In a variation of the source of FIG. 5, the signal and idler wavelengths of the OPO 100 can be tuned in any suitable way (e.g., by temperature tuning). For example, the nonlinear optical medium 150 can comprise a QPM medium (e.g., a stack of GaAs plates as described above) that is arranged to generate the terahertz imaging beam 21 at a first terahertz frequency (e.g., 0.75 THz) by a 1^(st) order QPM parametric process with the signal and idler wavelengths at 2122.4 nm and 2133.7 nm, respectively. As the signal and idler wavelengths are tuned away from those wavelengths (farther apart), eventually a combination of signal and idler wavelengths is reached where terahertz radiation at 2.3 THz is produced by a 3^(rd) order QPM parametric process. Further tuning of the signal and idler results in terahertz radiation at 3.4 THz produced by a 5^(th) order QPM parametric process. The QPM nonlinear optical medium 150 will exhibit a finite acceptance bandwidth for each of those parametric processes, thereby enabling some limited degree of tuning of the terahertz output about each of the output frequencies. Using such a source, images can be produced at the multiple terahertz output frequencies. Upconverting and acquiring those images at differing terahertz frequencies in some instances can be accomplished using the same nonlinear optical medium 36 or the same wavelength dependent filter or set of filters 38; in other instances, upconverting and acquiring images at differing terahertz frequencies can require differing nonlinear optical media 36 or differing wavelength dependent filters 38. In one arrangement, those differing media or filters could be mounted in a movable mount resembling a filter wheel so that each could be moved into position when needed for a corresponding terahertz imaging frequency.

The configurations of FIGS. 1 and 2 can be modified to enable convenient acquisition of images of the object 10 at other wavelengths in addition to the upconverted terahertz images. For example, movable optics can be employed to redirect the upconverting beam 22 to propagate along the path of the terahertz imaging beam 21. The beamsplitter 34 and nonlinear optical medium 36 can be mounted so that they can be readily removed from the beam path, and the filter(s) 38 or polarizer 39 can be removed or replaced as appropriate. A filter wheel can be employed, for example, for swapping those elements into or out of the beam path. In this way, a given object can be imaged in place at differing wavelengths (e.g., 1.55 THz and 1064 nm) and then comparisons or correlations can be made among those images. In addition, other wavelengths (in addition to λ_(UC)) that might be available can be used for imaging object 10 as well. For example, the signal or idler wavelengths produced by OPO 100 can be directed along the path of terahertz imaging beam 21 to image the object 10 at one or both of those wavelengths. In another example, an entirely independent source can be employed by directing its output along the path of the terahertz imaging beam 21 to image object 10.

In addition to the preceding, the following examples fall within the scope of the present disclosure or appended claims:

Example 1

A method for acquiring an upconverted terahertz image of an object, the method comprising: (a) illuminating the object with a terahertz imaging beam characterized by a terahertz frequency between about 0.1 THz and about 10 THz, a terahertz bandwidth, a terahertz average power, a terahertz peak power, a terahertz pulse duration, and a pulse repetition rate; (b) collecting at least a portion of the terahertz imaging beam, transmitted by or around the object or reflected or scattered from the object, and directing that portion to propagate as a terahertz image beam through a nonlinear optical medium, wherein the terahertz image beam is characterized by a terahertz image beam size at the nonlinear optical medium; (c) directing an upconverting beam to propagate through the nonlinear optical medium, wherein the upconverting beam at least partly spatially overlaps the terahertz image beam in the nonlinear optical medium and is characterized by an upconverting wavelength, an upconverting bandwidth, an upconverting average power, an upconverting peak power, the pulse rate, and an upconverting beam size at the nonlinear optical medium; (d) upconverting, by nonlinear optical interaction of the terahertz image beam and the upconverting beam in the nonlinear optical medium, at least a portion of the terahertz image beam to form an upconverted image beam characterized by one or both wavelengths produced by sum- or difference-frequency generation between the terahertz image beam and the upconverting beam; (e) receiving at least a portion of the upconverted image beam using an image detector and detecting with the image detector an upconverted image formed at the image detector by the upconverted image beam; and (f) allowing less than about 1 part in 10⁸ of the upconverting beam to reach the image detector using an image filtering element, (g) wherein the pulse repetition rate is greater than about 1 MHz, the upconverting wavelength is between about 400 nm and about 3500 nm, the upconverting bandwidth is less than about 5 nm, the upconverting pulse duration is less than about 100 ps.

Example 2

The method of Example 1 wherein the pulse repetition rate is between about 50 MHz and about 150 MHz, the upconverting wavelength is between about 1000 nm and about 1100 nm, the upconverting bandwidth is less than about 2 nm, and the upconverting pulse duration is less than about 10 ps.

Example 3

The method of any one of Examples 1 or 2 wherein the upconverting wavelength is about 1064 nm and the upconverted image wavelength is either: (i) about 1058 nm or about 1070 nm or both, or (ii) about 1061 nm or about 1067 nm or both.

Example 4

The method of Example 1 wherein the pulse repetition rate is between about 50 MHz and about 150 MHz, the upconverting wavelength is between about 2100 nm and about 2150 nm, and the upconverting pulse duration is less than about 10 ps.

Example 5

The method of any one of Examples 1-4 further comprising generating the terahertz imaging beam using a synchronously pumped optical parametric oscillator including an intracavity terahertz-generating medium, wherein intracavity signal and idler beams generate the terahertz imaging beam by difference frequency generation in the terahertz-generating medium.

Example 6

The method of Example 5 wherein the upconverting beam comprises a portion of an output beam of a pump source for the optical parametric oscillator.

Example 7

The method of Example 5 wherein the upconverting beam comprises a portion of the intracavity signal or idler beams that are directed to propagate outside the optical parametric oscillator.

Example 8

The method of any one of Examples 5-7 wherein the intracavity terahertz-generating medium comprises a stack of two or more optical contacted plates of a nonlinear optical material arranged for quasi-phase-matched difference frequency generation of the intracavity signal and idler beams.

Example 9

The method of Example 8 wherein the stack of two or more optically contacted plates comprises a stack of 6 to 12 optically contacted plates of GaAs about 550 μm thick, the signal wavelength is about 2116 nm, the idler wavelength is about 2140 nm, and the terahertz frequency is about 1.55 THz.

Example 10

The method of any one of Examples 1-9 wherein the image filtering element includes one or more wavelength-dependent filters.

Example 11

The method of Example 10 wherein at least one of the one or more wavelength-dependent filters comprises a short-pass or a long-pass filter with a nominal cutoff wavelength between the upconverting wavelength and one of the upconverted image wavelengths.

Example 12

The method of Example 10 wherein at least one of the one or more wavelength-dependent filters comprises a notch filter nominally centered on the upconverting wavelength.

Example 13

The method of any one of Examples 1-12 wherein the nonlinear optical medium is arranged so that the nonlinear optical interaction is a Type I or Type II process, so that polarization of the upconverted image beam is substantially perpendicular to polarization of the upconverting beam.

Example 14

The method of any one of Examples 1-13 wherein the upconverting beam and the upconverted image beam are polarized substantially orthogonally with respect to each other, and the image filtering element includes one or more polarizers arranged to substantially block the upconverting beam.

Example 15

The method of any one of Examples 1-12 wherein the nonlinear optical medium is arranged so that the nonlinear optical interaction is a Type 0 process, so that polarization of the upconverted image beam is substantially parallel to polarization of the upconverting beam.

Example 16

The method of any one of Examples 1-15 wherein the nonlinear optical medium is arranged so that the nonlinear optical interaction is a critically phase-matched process.

Example 17

The method of any one of Examples 1-15 wherein the nonlinear optical medium is arranged so that the nonlinear optical interaction is a non-critically phase-matched process.

Example 18

The method of any one of Examples 1-15 wherein the nonlinear optical medium is arranged so that the nonlinear optical interaction is a quasi-phase-matched process.

Example 19

The method of Example 18 wherein the nonlinear optical medium comprises a periodically poled nonlinear optical crystal.

Example 20

The method of Example 18 wherein the nonlinear optical medium comprises a stack of two or more optically contacted plates of a nonlinear optical material.

Example 21

The method of Example 18 wherein the nonlinear optical medium comprises a stack of 6 to 12 optically contacted plates of GaAs about 300 μm thick, the terahertz frequency is about 1.55 THz, and the upconverting wavelength is about 1064 nm.

Example 22

The method of any one of Examples 1-21 wherein (i) a first focusing element collects the portion of the terahertz imaging beam and directs the terahertz image beam to propagate through the nonlinear optical medium, (ii) the object and the nonlinear optical medium are positioned at respective conjugate planes of the first focusing element so that the terahertz image beam forms a terahertz image of the object at the nonlinear optical medium, (iii) a second focusing element collects the portion of the upconverted image beam and directs the upconverted image beam to propagate to the image detector, and (iv) the nonlinear optical medium and the image detector are positioned at respective conjugate planes of the second focusing element so that the upconverted image beam forms the upconverted image at the image detector.

Example 23

The method of any one of Examples 1-21 wherein (i) a first focusing element, characterized by an effective focal length f₁, collects the portion of the terahertz imaging beam and directs the terahertz image beam to propagate through the nonlinear optical medium, (ii) the object and the nonlinear optical medium are each positioned at a distance of about f₁ from the first focusing element so that the terahertz image beam forms a spatial Fourier transform of a terahertz image of the object at the nonlinear optical medium, (iii) a second focusing element, characterized by an effective focal length f₂, collects the portion of the upconverted image beam and directs the upconverted image beam to propagate to the image detector, and (iv) the nonlinear optical medium and the image detector are each positioned at a distance of about f₂ from the second focusing element so that the upconverted image beam forms the upconverted image at the image detector.

Example 24

The method of any one of Examples 1-23 wherein the image detector comprises an imaging detector array, and detecting the upconverted image comprises receiving simultaneously different spatial portions of the upconverted image beam on multiple corresponding detector elements of the imaging detector array.

Example 25

The method of any one of Examples 1-23 wherein the image detector comprises a single detector element, and detecting the upconverted image comprises scanning the single detector element across the upconverted image beam so as to receive sequentially different spatial portions of the upconverted image beam on the single detector element.

Example 26

The method of any one of Examples 1-25 further comprising acquiring multiple upconverted terahertz images with corresponding different temporal offsets at the nonlinear optical medium between pulse trains of the terahertz image beam and the upconverting beam, wherein (i) the terahertz image beam comprises the portion of the terahertz imaging beam reflected or scattered from the object and (ii) each one of the multiple upconverted terahertz images corresponds to a differing depth within the object, thereby enabling terahertz tomography of the object.

Example 27

The method of any one of Examples 1-26 wherein position-dependent intensity of the upconverted image is substantially independent of position-dependent phase of the terahertz image.

Example 28

The method of any one of Examples 1-26 further comprising: splitting off a portion of the terahertz imaging beam to form a terahertz reference beam; combining the terahertz reference beam and the terahertz image beam to co-propagate through the nonlinear optical medium; and acquiring multiple upconverted terahertz images with corresponding different relative phases of the terahertz image beam and the terahertz reference beam, wherein position-dependent intensity of each upconverted image depends at least partly on the corresponding relative phase of the terahertz image beam and the terahertz reference beam.

Example 29

An apparatus for acquiring an upconverted terahertz image of an object, the apparatus comprising: (a) a terahertz source arranged to illuminate the object with a terahertz imaging beam characterized by a terahertz frequency between about 0.1 THz and about 10 THz, a terahertz bandwidth, a terahertz average power, a terahertz peak power, a terahertz pulse duration, and a pulse repetition rate; (b) one or more terahertz optical components arranged to collect at least a portion of the terahertz imaging beam, transmitted by or around the object or reflected or scattered from the object, and to direct that portion to propagate as a terahertz image beam through a nonlinear optical medium, wherein the terahertz image beam is characterized by a terahertz image beam size at the nonlinear optical medium; (c) a light source arranged to emit an upconverting beam; (d) one or more optical components arranged to direct the upconverting beam to propagate through the nonlinear optical medium, wherein the upconverting beam at least partly spatially overlaps the terahertz image beam in the nonlinear optical medium and is characterized by an upconverting wavelength, an upconverting bandwidth, an upconverting average power, an upconverting peak power, the pulse rate, and an upconverting beam size at the nonlinear optical medium; (e) the nonlinear optical medium, wherein the nonlinear optical medium is arranged to upconvert, by nonlinear optical interaction of the terahertz image beam and the upconverting beam in the nonlinear optical medium, at least a portion of the terahertz image beam to form an upconverted image beam characterized by one or both wavelengths produced by sum- or difference-frequency generation between the terahertz image beam and the upconverting beam; (f) an image detector arranged to receive at least a portion of the upconverted image beam and to detect an upconverted image formed at the image detector by the upconverted image beam; and (g) an image filtering element arranged to allow less than about 1 part in 10⁸ of the upconverting beam to reach the image detector, (h) wherein the pulse repetition rate is greater than about 1 MHz, the upconverting wavelength is between about 400 nm and about 3500 nm, the upconverting bandwidth is less than about 5 nm, the upconverting pulse duration is less than about 100 ps.

Example 30

The apparatus of Example 29 wherein the pulse repetition rate is between about 50 MHz and about 150 MHz, the upconverting wavelength is between about 1000 nm and about 1100 nm, the upconverting bandwidth is less than about 2 nm, and the upconverting pulse duration is less than about 10 ps.

Example 31

The apparatus of any one of Examples 29 or 30 wherein the upconverting wavelength is about 1064 nm and the upconverted image wavelength is either: (i) about 1058 nm or about 1070 nm or both, or (ii) about 1061 nm or about 1067 nm or both.

Example 32

The apparatus of Example 29 wherein the pulse repetition rate is between about 50 MHz and about 150 MHz, the upconverting wavelength is between about 2100 nm and about 2150 nm, and the upconverting pulse duration is less than about 10 ps.

Example 33

The apparatus of any one of Examples 29-32 wherein the terahertz source comprises a synchronously pumped optical parametric oscillator including an intracavity terahertz-generating medium arranged so as to generate from intracavity signal and idler beams the terahertz imaging beam by difference frequency generation in the terahertz-generating medium.

Example 34

The apparatus of Example 33 wherein the light source comprises a pump source for the optical parametric oscillator and the upconverting beam comprises a portion of an output beam of the pump source.

Example 35

The apparatus of Example 33 wherein the light source comprises the optical parametric oscillator and the upconverting beam comprises a portion of the intracavity signal or idler beams that are directed to propagate outside the optical parametric oscillator.

Example 36

The apparatus of any one of Examples 33-35 wherein the intracavity terahertz-generating medium comprises a stack of two or more optical contacted plates of a nonlinear optical material arranged for quasi-phase-matched difference frequency generation of the intracavity signal and idler beams.

Example 37

The apparatus of Example 36 wherein the stack of two or more optically contacted plates comprises a stack of 6 to 12 optically contacted plates of GaAs about 550 μm thick, the signal wavelength is about 2116 nm, the idler wavelength is about 2140 nm, and the terahertz frequency is about 1.55 THz.

Example 38

The apparatus of any one of Examples 29-37 wherein the image filtering element includes one or more wavelength-dependent filters.

Example 39

The apparatus of Example 38 wherein at least one of the one or more wavelength-dependent filters comprises a short-pass or a long-pass filter with a nominal cutoff wavelength between the upconverting wavelength and one of the upconverted image wavelengths.

Example 40

The apparatus of Example 38 wherein at least one of the one or more wavelength-dependent filters comprises a notch filter nominally centered on the upconverting wavelength.

Example 41

The apparatus of any one of Examples 29-40 wherein the nonlinear optical medium is arranged so that the nonlinear optical interaction is a Type I or Type II process, so that polarization of the upconverted image beam is substantially perpendicular to polarization of the upconverting beam.

Example 42

The apparatus of any one of Examples 29-41 wherein the upconverting beam and the upconverted image beam are polarized substantially orthogonally with respect to each other, and the image filtering element includes one or more polarizers arranged to substantially block the upconverting beam.

Example 43

The apparatus of any one of Examples 29-40 wherein the nonlinear optical medium is arranged so that the nonlinear optical interaction is a Type 0 process, so that polarization of the upconverted image beam is substantially parallel to polarization of the upconverting beam.

Example 44

The apparatus of any one of Examples 29-43 wherein the nonlinear optical medium is arranged so that the nonlinear optical interaction is a critically phase-matched process.

Example 45

The apparatus of any one of Examples 29-43 wherein the nonlinear optical medium is arranged so that the nonlinear optical interaction is a non-critically phase-matched process.

Example 46

The apparatus of any one of Examples 29-43 wherein the nonlinear optical medium is arranged so that the nonlinear optical interaction is a quasi-phase-matched process.

Example 47

The apparatus of Example 46 wherein the nonlinear optical medium comprises a periodically poled nonlinear optical crystal.

Example 48

The apparatus of Example 46 wherein the nonlinear optical medium comprises a stack of two or more optically contacted plates of a nonlinear optical material.

Example 49

The apparatus of Example 46 wherein the nonlinear optical medium comprises a stack of 6 to 12 optically contacted plates of GaAs about 300 μm thick, the terahertz frequency is about 1.55 THz, and the upconverting wavelength is about 1064 nm.

Example 50

The apparatus of any one of Examples 29-49 wherein (i) the one or more terahertz optical components include a first focusing element arranged to collect the portion of the terahertz imaging beam and to direct the terahertz image beam to propagate through the nonlinear optical medium, (ii) the object and the nonlinear optical medium are positioned at respective conjugate planes of the first focusing element so that the terahertz image beam forms a terahertz image of the object at the nonlinear optical medium, (iii) the one or more optical components include a second focusing element arranged to collect the portion of the upconverted image beam and to direct the upconverted image beam to propagate to the image detector, and (iv) the nonlinear optical medium and the image detector are positioned at respective conjugate planes of the second focusing element so that the upconverted image beam forms the upconverted image at the image detector.

Example 51

The apparatus of any one of Examples 29-49 wherein (i) the one or more terahertz optical components include a first focusing element, characterized by an effective focal length f₁, arranged to collect the portion of the terahertz imaging beam and to direct the terahertz image beam to propagate through the nonlinear optical medium, (ii) the object and the nonlinear optical medium are each positioned at a distance of about f₁ from the first focusing element so that the terahertz image beam forms a spatial Fourier transform of a terahertz image of the object at the nonlinear optical medium, (iii) the one or more optical components include a second focusing element, characterized by an effective focal length f₂, arranged to collect the portion of the upconverted image beam and to direct the upconverted image beam to propagate to the image detector, and (iv) the nonlinear optical medium and the image detector are each positioned at a distance of about f₂ from the second focusing element so that the upconverted image beam forms the upconverted image at the image detector.

Example 52

The apparatus of any one of Examples 29-51 wherein the image detector comprises an imaging detector array positioned and arranged to receive simultaneously different spatial portions of the upconverted image beam on multiple corresponding detector elements of the imaging detector array.

Example 53

The apparatus of any one of Examples 29-51 wherein the image detector comprises a single detector element arranged to be scanned across the upconverted image beam so as to receive sequentially different spatial portions of the upconverted image beam on the single detector element.

Example 54

The apparatus of any one of Examples 29-53 wherein (i) the one or more terahertz optical components are arranged so that the terahertz image beam comprises the portion of the terahertz imaging beam reflected or scattered from the object, (ii) one or both of the one or more terahertz optical components or the one or more optical components include an optical delay line arranged to provide different temporal offsets at the nonlinear optical medium between pulse trains of the terahertz image beam and the upconverting beam, and (iii) one or both of the one or more terahertz optical components or the one or more optical components are arranged so that each upconverted terahertz image acquired at a corresponding different temporal offset corresponds to a differing depth within the object, thereby enabling terahertz tomography of the object.

Example 55

The apparatus of any one of Examples 29-54 wherein one or both of the one or more terahertz optical components or the one or more optical components are arranged so that position-dependent intensity of the upconverted image is substantially independent of position-dependent phase of the terahertz image.

Example 56

The apparatus of any one of Examples 29-54 wherein the one or more terahertz optical components are arranged to split off a portion of the terahertz imaging beam to form a terahertz reference beam and to combine the terahertz reference beam and the terahertz image beam to co-propagate through the nonlinear optical medium with different relative phases of the terahertz image beam and the terahertz reference beam, and position-dependent intensity of each upconverted image depends at least partly on the corresponding relative phase of the terahertz image beam and the terahertz reference beam.

It is intended that equivalents of the disclosed exemplary embodiments and methods shall fall within the scope of the present disclosure or subsequently presented claims. It is intended that the disclosed exemplary embodiments and methods, and equivalents thereof, may be modified while remaining within the scope of the present disclosure.

In the foregoing Detailed Description, various features may be grouped together in several exemplary embodiments for the purpose of streamlining the disclosure. This method of disclosure is not to be interpreted as reflecting an intention that any subsequently claimed embodiment requires more features than are expressly recited in the corresponding claim. Rather, inventive subject matter may lie in less than all features of a single disclosed exemplary embodiment. Therefore, the present disclosure shall also be construed as implicitly disclosing any embodiment having any suitable set of one or more disclosed or claimed features (i.e., sets of features that are not incompatible or mutually exclusive) that appear in the present disclosure or any subsequently presented claims, including those sets that may not be explicitly disclosed herein.

For purposes of the present disclosure and subsequently presented claims, the conjunction “or” is to be construed inclusively (e.g., “a dog or a cat” would be interpreted as “a dog, or a cat, or both”; e.g., “a dog, a cat, or a mouse” would be interpreted as “a dog, or a cat, or a mouse, or any two, or all three”), unless: (i) it is explicitly stated otherwise, e.g., by use of “either . . . or,” “only one of,” or similar language; or (ii) two or more of the listed alternatives are mutually exclusive within the particular context, in which case “or” would encompass only those combinations involving non-mutually-exclusive alternatives. For purposes of the present disclosure and subsequently presented claims, the words “comprising,” “including,” “having,” and variants thereof, wherever they appear, shall be construed as open ended terminology, with the same meaning as if the phrase “at least” were appended after each instance thereof.

If any one or more disclosures are incorporated herein by reference and such incorporated disclosures conflict in part or whole with, or differ in scope from, the present disclosure, then to the extent of conflict, broader disclosure, or broader definition of terms, the present disclosure controls. If such incorporated disclosures conflict in part or whole with one another, then to the extent of conflict, the later-dated disclosure controls.

The Abstract is provided as required as an aid to those searching for specific subject matter within the patent literature. However, the Abstract is not intended to imply that any elements, features, or limitations recited therein are necessarily encompassed by any particular claim that is subsequently presented. The scope of subject matter encompassed by each claim presented shall be determined by the recitation of only that claim. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A method for acquiring an upconverted terahertz image of an object, the method comprising: (a) illuminating the object with a terahertz imaging beam characterized by a terahertz frequency between about 0.1 THz and about 10 THz, a terahertz bandwidth, a terahertz average power, a terahertz peak power, a terahertz pulse duration, and a pulse repetition rate; (b) collecting at least a portion of the terahertz imaging beam, transmitted by or around the object or reflected or scattered from the object, and directing that portion to propagate as a terahertz image beam through a nonlinear optical medium, wherein the terahertz image beam is characterized by a terahertz image beam size at the nonlinear optical medium; (c) directing an upconverting beam to propagate through the nonlinear optical medium, wherein the upconverting beam at least partly spatially overlaps the terahertz image beam in the nonlinear optical medium and is characterized by an upconverting wavelength, an upconverting bandwidth, an upconverting average power, an upconverting peak power, the pulse rate, and an upconverting beam size at the nonlinear optical medium; (d) upconverting, by nonlinear optical interaction of the terahertz image beam and the upconverting beam in the nonlinear optical medium, at least a portion of the terahertz image beam to form an upconverted image beam characterized by one or both wavelengths produced by sum- or difference-frequency generation between the terahertz image beam and the upconverting beam; (e) receiving at least a portion of the upconverted image beam using an image detector and detecting with the image detector an upconverted image formed at the image detector by the upconverted image beam; and (f) allowing less than about 1 part in 10⁸ of the upconverting beam to reach the image detector using an image filtering element, (g) wherein the pulse repetition rate is greater than about 1 MHz, the upconverting wavelength is between about 400 nm and about 3500 nm, the upconverting bandwidth is less than about 5 nm, the upconverting pulse duration is less than about 100 ps.
 2. The method of claim 1 wherein the pulse repetition rate is between about 50 MHz and about 150 MHz, the upconverting wavelength is between about 1000 nm and about 1100 nm, the upconverting bandwidth is less than about 2 nm, and the upconverting pulse duration is less than about 10 ps.
 3. The method of claim 1 further comprising generating the terahertz imaging beam using a synchronously pumped optical parametric oscillator including an intracavity terahertz-generating medium, wherein intracavity signal and idler beams generate the terahertz imaging beam by difference frequency generation in the terahertz-generating medium.
 4. The method of claim 3 wherein the intracavity terahertz-generating medium comprises a stack of two or more optical contacted plates of a nonlinear optical material arranged for quasi-phase-matched difference frequency generation of the intracavity signal and idler beams.
 5. The method of claim 1 wherein the image filtering element includes one or more wavelength-dependent filters.
 6. The method of claim 5 wherein at least one of the one or more wavelength-dependent filters comprises a short-pass or a long-pass filter with a nominal cutoff wavelength between the upconverting wavelength and one of the upconverted image wavelengths.
 7. The method of claim 1 wherein the upconverting beam and the upconverted image beam are polarized substantially orthogonally with respect to each other, and the image filtering element includes one or more polarizers arranged to substantially block the upconverting beam.
 8. The method of claim 1 wherein the nonlinear optical medium is arranged so that the nonlinear optical interaction is a quasi-phase-matched process.
 9. The method of claim 8 wherein the nonlinear optical medium comprises a stack of two or more optically contacted plates of a nonlinear optical material.
 10. The method of claim 8 wherein the nonlinear optical medium comprises a stack of 6 to 12 optically contacted plates of GaAs about 300 μm thick, the terahertz frequency is about 1.55 THz, and the upconverting wavelength is about 1064 nm.
 11. The method of claim 1 wherein (i) a first focusing element collects the portion of the terahertz imaging beam and directs the terahertz image beam to propagate through the nonlinear optical medium, (ii) the object and the nonlinear optical medium are positioned at respective conjugate planes of the first focusing element so that the terahertz image beam forms a terahertz image of the object at the nonlinear optical medium, (iii) a second focusing element collects the portion of the upconverted image beam and directs the upconverted image beam to propagate to the image detector, and (iv) the nonlinear optical medium and the image detector are positioned at respective conjugate planes of the second focusing element so that the upconverted image beam forms the upconverted image at the image detector.
 12. The method of claim 1 wherein (i) a first focusing element, characterized by an effective focal length f₁, collects the portion of the terahertz imaging beam and directs the terahertz image beam to propagate through the nonlinear optical medium, (ii) the object and the nonlinear optical medium are each positioned at a distance of about f₁ from the first focusing element so that the terahertz image beam forms a spatial Fourier transform of a terahertz image of the object at the nonlinear optical medium, (iii) a second focusing element, characterized by an effective focal length f₂, collects the portion of the upconverted image beam and directs the upconverted image beam to propagate to the image detector, and (iv) the nonlinear optical medium and the image detector are each positioned at a distance of about f₂ from the second focusing element so that the upconverted image beam forms the upconverted image at the image detector.
 13. The method of claim 1 wherein the image detector comprises an imaging detector array, and detecting the upconverted image comprises receiving simultaneously different spatial portions of the upconverted image beam on multiple corresponding detector elements of the imaging detector array.
 14. The method of claim 1 further comprising acquiring multiple upconverted terahertz images with corresponding different temporal offsets at the nonlinear optical medium between pulse trains of the terahertz image beam and the upconverting beam, wherein (i) the terahertz image beam comprises the portion of the terahertz imaging beam reflected or scattered from the object and (ii) each one of the multiple upconverted terahertz images corresponds to a differing depth within the object, thereby enabling terahertz tomography of the object.
 15. The method of claim 1 further comprising: splitting off a portion of the terahertz imaging beam to form a terahertz reference beam; combining the terahertz reference beam and the terahertz image beam to co-propagate through the nonlinear optical medium; and acquiring multiple upconverted terahertz images with corresponding different relative phases of the terahertz image beam and the terahertz reference beam, wherein position-dependent intensity of each upconverted image depends at least partly on the corresponding relative phase of the terahertz image beam and the terahertz reference beam.
 16. An apparatus for acquiring an upconverted terahertz image of an object, the apparatus comprising: (a) a terahertz source arranged to illuminate the object with a terahertz imaging beam characterized by a terahertz frequency between about 0.1 THz and about 10 THz, a terahertz bandwidth, a terahertz average power, a terahertz peak power, a terahertz pulse duration, and a pulse repetition rate; (b) one or more terahertz optical components arranged to collect at least a portion of the terahertz imaging beam, transmitted by or around the object or reflected or scattered from the object, and to direct that portion to propagate as a terahertz image beam through a nonlinear optical medium, wherein the terahertz image beam is characterized by a terahertz image beam size at the nonlinear optical medium; (c) a light source arranged to emit an upconverting beam; (d) one or more optical components arranged to direct the upconverting beam to propagate through the nonlinear optical medium, wherein the upconverting beam at least partly spatially overlaps the terahertz image beam in the nonlinear optical medium and is characterized by an upconverting wavelength, an upconverting bandwidth, an upconverting average power, an upconverting peak power, the pulse rate, and an upconverting beam size at the nonlinear optical medium; (e) the nonlinear optical medium, wherein the nonlinear optical medium is arranged to upconvert, by nonlinear optical interaction of the terahertz image beam and the upconverting beam in the nonlinear optical medium, at least a portion of the terahertz image beam to form an upconverted image beam characterized by one or both wavelengths produced by sum- or difference-frequency generation between the terahertz image beam and the upconverting beam; (f) an image detector arranged to receive at least a portion of the upconverted image beam and to detect an upconverted image formed at the image detector by the upconverted image beam; and (g) an image filtering element arranged to allow less than about 1 part in 10⁸ of the upconverting beam to reach the image detector, (h) wherein the pulse repetition rate is greater than about 1 MHz, the upconverting wavelength is between about 400 nm and about 3500 nm, the upconverting bandwidth is less than about 5 nm, the upconverting pulse duration is less than about 100 ps.
 17. The apparatus of claim 16 wherein the pulse repetition rate is between about 50 MHz and about 150 MHz, the upconverting wavelength is between about 1000 nm and about 1100 nm, the upconverting bandwidth is less than about 2 nm, and the upconverting pulse duration is less than about 10 ps.
 18. The apparatus of claim 16 wherein the terahertz source comprises a synchronously pumped optical parametric oscillator including an intracavity terahertz-generating medium arranged so as to generate from intracavity signal and idler beams the terahertz imaging beam by difference frequency generation in the terahertz-generating medium.
 19. The apparatus of claim 18 wherein the intracavity terahertz-generating medium comprises a stack of two or more optical contacted plates of a nonlinear optical material arranged for quasi-phase-matched difference frequency generation of the intracavity signal and idler beams.
 20. The apparatus of claim 16 wherein the image filtering element includes one or more wavelength-dependent filters.
 21. The apparatus of claim 20 wherein at least one of the one or more wavelength-dependent filters comprises a short-pass or a long-pass filter with a nominal cutoff wavelength between the upconverting wavelength and one of the upconverted image wavelengths.
 22. The apparatus of claim 16 wherein the upconverting beam and the upconverted image beam are polarized substantially orthogonally with respect to each other, and the image filtering element includes one or more polarizers arranged to substantially block the upconverting beam.
 23. The apparatus of claim 16 wherein the nonlinear optical medium is arranged so that the nonlinear optical interaction is a quasi-phase-matched process.
 24. The apparatus of claim 23 wherein the nonlinear optical medium comprises a stack of two or more optically contacted plates of a nonlinear optical material.
 25. The apparatus of claim 23 wherein the nonlinear optical medium comprises a stack of 6 to 12 optically contacted plates of GaAs about 300 μm thick, the terahertz frequency is about 1.55 THz, and the upconverting wavelength is about 1064 nm.
 26. The apparatus of claim 16 wherein (i) the one or more terahertz optical components include a first focusing element arranged to collect the portion of the terahertz imaging beam and to direct the terahertz image beam to propagate through the nonlinear optical medium, (ii) the object and the nonlinear optical medium are positioned at respective conjugate planes of the first focusing element so that the terahertz image beam forms a terahertz image of the object at the nonlinear optical medium, (iii) the one or more optical components include a second focusing element arranged to collect the portion of the upconverted image beam and to direct the upconverted image beam to propagate to the image detector, and (iv) the nonlinear optical medium and the image detector are positioned at respective conjugate planes of the second focusing element so that the upconverted image beam forms the upconverted image at the image detector.
 27. The apparatus of claim 16 wherein (i) the one or more terahertz optical components include a first focusing element, characterized by an effective focal length f₁, arranged to collect the portion of the terahertz imaging beam and to direct the terahertz image beam to propagate through the nonlinear optical medium, (ii) the object and the nonlinear optical medium are each positioned at a distance of about f₁ from the first focusing element so that the terahertz image beam forms a spatial Fourier transform of a terahertz image of the object at the nonlinear optical medium, (iii) the one or more optical components include a second focusing element, characterized by an effective focal length f₂, arranged to collect the portion of the upconverted image beam and to direct the upconverted image beam to propagate to the image detector, and (iv) the nonlinear optical medium and the image detector are each positioned at a distance of about f₂ from the second focusing element so that the upconverted image beam forms the upconverted image at the image detector.
 28. The apparatus of claim 16 wherein the image detector comprises an imaging detector array positioned and arranged to receive simultaneously different spatial portions of the upconverted image beam on multiple corresponding detector elements of the imaging detector array.
 29. The apparatus of claim 16 wherein (i) the one or more terahertz optical components are arranged so that the terahertz image beam comprises the portion of the terahertz imaging beam reflected or scattered from the object, (ii) one or both of the one or more terahertz optical components or the one or more optical components include an optical delay line arranged to provide different temporal offsets at the nonlinear optical medium between pulse trains of the terahertz image beam and the upconverting beam, and (iii) one or both of the one or more terahertz optical components or the one or more optical components are arranged so that each upconverted terahertz image acquired at a corresponding different temporal offset corresponds to a differing depth within the object, thereby enabling terahertz tomography of the object.
 30. The apparatus of claim 16 wherein the one or more terahertz optical components are arranged to split off a portion of the terahertz imaging beam to form a terahertz reference beam and to combine the terahertz reference beam and the terahertz image beam to co-propagate through the nonlinear optical medium with different relative phases of the terahertz image beam and the terahertz reference beam, and position-dependent intensity of each upconverted image depends at least partly on the corresponding relative phase of the terahertz image beam and the terahertz reference beam. 